A closer look at the history and genetics of Tourette syndrome

Tourette syndrome (TS) was named after Georges Albert Edouard Brutus Gilles de la Tourette, who made its first formal description at the end of the 19th century. Nevertheless, some evidence indicates the disorder may have been recognised at least two thousand years ago. Tic like behaviours were recorded by Aretaeus of Cappadocia and several centuries later by Sprenger and Kraemer, followed by other descriptions. The English writer Samuel Johnson, author of the first English Language Dictionary, showed repetitive body twitches, facial grimaces, barks and grunts, among other tics. He was observed in situations such as going in or out at a door using a certain number of steps, from a certain point, which indicated he had also obsessive-compulsive behaviour. There was some evidence of features of TS as well as co-morbid conditions such as hyperactivity, obsessive-compulsive behaviour or rage attacks in other famous artists and world leaders. Some authors have even proposed that the creative, determined, competitive, and persistent nature of certain people may be related to the presence of TS. Clinicians have observed that some patients are particularly sensitive to the feelings and experiences of others, and more prone to outside stimuli. In this way, empathy could be a common quality in these patients. In 1825, Jean Marc Gaspard Itard made the first known medical description of TS based on two cases, one of which was later followed by Jean-Martin Charcot. In 1885 Gilles de la Tourette put together information from previous fragmented reports and wrote a complete and formal description, thus establishing a novel clinical entity. Behavioural abnormalities such as obsessions, compulsions, inattentiveness and hyperactivity, commonly observed in TS patients, were considered mental tics at the time. Current diagnostic criteria are very similar to Gilles de la Tourette's description. TS is characterized by the presence of multiple motor and one or more vocal tics. In this disorder, tics are not caused by the direct physiologic effects of a substance or a general medical condition. Tic symptomatology is persistent for over a year, and in this period, tics are not absent for more than three consecutive months. There is no exact consensus between the DSM-IV and the Tourette Syndrome Classification Study Group of whether the age of onset should be prior to 18 or 21 years of age, how cases of onset after 21 years should be diagnosed, and if marked distress or significant impairment caused by tics is necessary to define the condition as definite TS. However, the text revision of the DSM-IV (TR) no longer specifies that TS symptoms have to cause distress or impair the functioning of the patients. With respect to the age of onset, the ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders describes the onset almost always in childhood or adolescence, and in this way it would no longer exclude cases with later onset. Numerous studies confirmed in the 20th century that genetics plays an important role in the etiology of TS. Family studies proved that the disease runs in families. First-degree relatives of TS patients are indeed in greater risk for TS than the general population. Twin and adoption studies demonstrated that genes have an important role in the etiology of TS, and as much as 90% of the vulnerability to this syndrome could be affected by genes. In addition, environmental, epigenetic and even stochastic factors may affect the susceptibility to TS. At the molecular level, linkage in families and association in unrelated TS subjects have been the main methods used to search for vulnerability genes. Sequencing of almost the entire human genome made it possible to assess the gene expression of thousands of genes on a single chip; recent studies reported a preliminary specific profile in the blood of TS patients. If confirmed, this finding could be useful in the identification of genetic factors related with TS. Given the multi-factorial nature of TS, a thorough clinical description in large samples should be considered; besides association, linkage and sequencing studies, possible gene-gene and gene-environment interactions would also need to be analysed, as well as epigenetic factors, and gene expression patterns.

El síndrome de Gilles de la Tourette (SGT) se nombró asi en honor de Georges Albert Edouard Brutus Gilles de la Tourette, alumno de Charcot, quien realizó la primera descripción formal de esta entidad clínica a finales del siglo XIX. Sin embargo, hay evidencias que indican que probablemente el trastorno se había identificado de alguna manera desde hace por lo menos dos mil años. Areteo de Capadocia registró conductas similares a los tics, también descritas por Sprenger y Kraemer en el siglo XV y más adelante por otros. El escritor inglés Samuel Johnson, autor del primer Diccionario de la Lengua Inglesa, mostraba contorsiones en todo el cuerpo, muecas, ladridos y gruñidos, entre otros tics. Se le observaba entrando o saliendo por una puerta con un número determinado de pasos a partir de un punto dado, lo cual indica que también presentaba conducta obsesivo- compulsiva. Además, otros artistas y líderes mundiales han presentado características del SGT y de padecimientos comórbidos como el trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad, el trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo o ataques de ira. Un grupo de autores ha llegado a considerar que la naturaleza creativa, determinada, competitiva y persistente en ciertas personas podría relacionarse con el SGT. Algunos especialistas del área médica han observado que ciertos pacientes con SGT son particularmente sensibles a los sentimientos y experiencias de otras personas y más propensos a los estímulos externos. Por lo tanto, la empatía podría ser una cualidad común en estos pacientes. En 1825, Jean Marc Gaspard Itard realizó la primera descripción médica conocida del SGT, basándose en dos casos, uno de los cuales fue estudiado más adelante por Charcot. En 1885, Gilles de la Tourette reunió fragmentos de información de reportes previos y redactó una descripción formal y completa del trastorno, con lo que estableció una nueva entidad clínica. Las anormalidades del tipo de obsesiones, compulsiones, inatención e hiperactividad se consideraban tics mentales en esa época. Los criterios diagnósticos actuales del SGT son muy similares a los publicados por Gilles de la Tourette. El SGT se caracteriza sobre todo por la presencia de dos o más tics motores y uno o más tics fónicos. En este trastorno, los tics no son causados por el efecto fisiológico directo de una droga o por una affeción médica general. La sintomatología de los tics persiste por más de un año y en este periodo los tics no se ausentan por más de tres meses consecutivos. No hay un consenso preciso entre el DSM-IV y el Grupo de Estudio de la Clasificación del Síndrome de Gilles de la Tourette en relación con la edad de inicio: si debe ser antes de los 18 o los 21 años, cómo deben considerarse casos de inicio posterior a los 21 años y si para definir un caso definitivo de SGT se requiere que la persona presente malestar o incapacidad importante a causa de los tics. Sin embargo, en el texto revisado del DSM-IV (TR) ya no se especifica que los síntomas del SGT deban causar necesariamente malestar o incapacidad en el funcionamiento diario de los pacientes. En cuanto a la edad de inicio, si la Clasificación de los Trastornos Mentales y de la Conducta (CIE-10) describe que la edad de inicio casi siempre es en la niñez o adolescencia, de esta manera ya no excluye la posibilidad de edades de inicio más avanzadas. Gracias a diversos estudios, durante el siglo XX se pudo confirmar que la genética es decisiva en la etiología del SGT. Por medio de estudios en familias se confirmó que el trastorno se concentra particularmente en ciertas familias. Los parientes en primer grado de un paciente con SGT se encuentran en mayor riesgo de presentar el trastorno que la población en general. Estudios realizados en pares de gemelos y personas adoptadas confirmaron que los genes tienen un peso importante en el aumento de la susceptibilidad al SGT. Se ha estimado que hasta 90% de la vulnerabilidad al trastorno podría estar afectada por los genes. Aunados a estos factores hereditarios que dependen directamente de la secuencia del ADN de nuestras células nucleadas, se encuentran otros factores que afectan en cierto grado la susceptibilidad al SGT, como los de tipo ambiental, epigenético o aleatorio. A nivel molecular, los principales diseños para el estudio del SGT y la búsqueda de genes de susceptibilidad han sido el enlace genético (linkage) en familias y los estudios de asociación en pacientes no emparentados. La secuenciación de prácticamente todo el genoma humano ha permitido, entre otras cosas, identificar la expresión de miles de genes en un solo chip. De acuerdo con estudios preliminares recientes, podría haber un patrón específico de expresión en sangre de pacientes con SGT. Si esto se llegara a confirmar, los hallazgos podrían emplearse para facilitar la identificación de factores genéticos de riesgo para el SGT. Tomando en cuenta la naturaleza multifactorial del SGT, se requiere además de estudios de enlace genético, asociación y secuenciación, análisis sobre interacciones de tipo gen-gen y gen-ambiente, así como la identificación de factores epigenéticos y de niveles de expresión genética en el SGT.

Frequency of the different mutations causing spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA1, SCA2, MJD/SCA3 and DRPLA) in a large group of Brazilian patients

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1), spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 (SCA2) and Machado-Joseph disease or spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (MJD/SCA3) are three distinctive forms of autosomal dominant spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) caused by expansions of an unstable CAG repeat localized in the coding region of the causative genes. Another related disease, dentatorubropallidoluysian atrophy (DRPLA) is also caused by an unstable triplet repeat and can present as SCA in late onset patients. We investigated the frequency of the SCA1, SCA2, MJD/SCA3 and DRPLA mutations in 328 Brazilian patients with SCA, belonging to 90 unrelated families with various patterns of inheritance and originating in different geographic regions of Brazil. We found mutations in 35 families (39 percent), 32 of them with a clear autosomal dominant inheritance. The frequency of the SCA1 mutation was 3 percent of all patients; and 6 percent in the dominantly inherited SCAs. We identified the SCA2 mutation in 6 percent of all families and in 9 percent of the families with autosomal dominant inheritance. The MJD/SCA3 mutation was detected in 30 percent of all patients; and in the 44 percent of the dominantly inherited cases. We found no DRPLA mutation. In addition, we observed variability in the frequency of the different mutations according to geographic origin of the patients, which is probably related to the distinct colonization of different parts of Brazil. These results suggest that SCA may be occasionally caused by the SCA1 and SCA2 mutations in the Brazilian population, and that the MJD/SCA3 mutation is the most common cause of dominantly inherited SCA in Brazil.

Clinical and molecular characteristics of a brazilian family with spinocerebellar ataxia type 1

The spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of late onset neurodegenerative disorders. To date, seven different genes causing autosomal dominant SCA have been mapped:SCA1,SCA2, Machado-Joseph disease(MJD)/SCA3,SCA4,SCA5,SCA7 and dentatorubropallidoluysian atrophy (DRPLA). Expansions of an unstable trinucleotide CAG repeat cause three of these disorders: SCA1, MJD/SCA3 and DRPLA. We studied one Brazilian family segregating an autosomal dominant type of SCA. A total of ten individuals were examined and tested for the presence of the SCA1, MJD and DRPLA mutations. Three individuals, one male and two females, were considered affected based on neurological examination; ages at onset were: 32, 36 and 41 years. The first complaint in all three patients was gait ataxia which progressed slowly over the years. Six individuals showed one allele containing an expanded CAG repeat in the SCA1 gene. The mean size of the expanded allele was 48.2 CAG units. Instability of the expanded CAG tract was seen in the two transmissions that were observed in this family. In both occasions there was a contraction of the CAG tract. Our study demonstrates that SCA1 occurs in the Brazilian population. In addition, our results stress the importance of molecular studies in the confirmation of diagnosis and for pre-symptomatic testing in SCAs.